Caramel Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Caramel - Assignment Example Jamale, who is a regular customer to the beauty salon and is striving towards an acting career, is preoccupied by getting old. Rose has a shop next to the salon and has dedicated her life, looking after her mentally ill sister. She recently found her first love and is torn apart which way to take. The film combines few genres. Throughout the film, there is this gentle comic element, which tried to lift the spirit of the women, the plot is also a bit melodramatic and there is an underlying, persistence romance. So the three genres where the film can fit are: romantic, dramatic and comic. The film tackles and addresses lots of themes – lost and found love, loneliness, public humiliation in a society surrounded by strict family values, heartbreak. An example can be given for the latter, where Layale, who lives with her parents, is a professionally independent woman, but she is having an affair with a married man. She spends endless hours, waiting anxiously for him to call, being completely oblivious to a gorgeous policeman, who is smitten by her. Each woman in the film represents a current issue in contemporary Lebanon – unfulfilled romance, aging, sexuality and marital values. The character that appeals to me the most is Jamale, because she is an actress, trying to audition for roles in commercials, sensing that she is getting old and the best days of her career might be over. Yes, the film deals with poignant contemporary issues alongside that of Lebanese identity. Caramel addresses sensitive social and identity issues, like homosexuality, extramarital relationships and fear of getting old. Can different women fit in modern Lebanon? It seems from the film that the typical feminine women does not suffer to a greater extend from the hypocritical, oriental system in Lebanon. It this may not be necessarily true. Lebanese women may be depicted free and emancipated, but behind the faà §ade, we are all ruled by societal norms, subject to

The Relationship Between The English Legal System And International Law International Law Essay

The Relationship Between The English Legal System And International Law International Law Essay The essay deals with the relationship between the English legal system and international law. Although there is some discrepancy among the two systems, they merge at some points. Looking at the theories around this issue, our domestic legal order seems to follow the dualist approach. Nonetheless, both the attitude of international law towards municipal rules and the approach as regards the law of the nations by the English legal system need to be examined. Even though the international legal machine does not permit a state to use its domestic law as a defence to violation of its international obligations, it does not entirely ignore municipal law rules. This means that there is an overlap between the two systems. Apart from that, by observing the reaction of the English legal system to treaty law it appears that conventions should be domesticated, through transformation, by an Act of Parliament. It should be noted that this is an expression of the dualist approach. In addition, menti on is made to the attitude of our domestic legal system towards customary international law, which tends to be unsteady. Despite the fact that international custom was considered to be incorporated in English law for years, according to recent cases there seems to be a change towards the transformation doctrine. Moreover, though there are areas of international law where the English courts cannot intervene, the law of the nations is not utterly distant from our domestic legal system. As a matter of fact, albeit some differences between the two legal systems they have influence upon each other.    Introduction Nowadays, a close observation of international law will reveal an enormous development in its substance. As a matter of fact, this distinct system of law, which regulates the interrelationship of sovereign states, deals with exceptionally significant matters like human rights, war and international crimes. At this point, a question that might be asked by a person reading regularly the International News section in a British newspaper will be the following: Given the importance of international law and its common interests in certain fields with the English legal system, what is their relationship? Is there an overlap or a gap between them? In order to provide a reliable answer, we should examine the position of municipal law within the international sphere and mainly how the English legal system responds to treaty and customary international law. Theories on the relationship of international and internal law Among other things, scholars attempted to explain the relationship between international and domestic law through various theories. Most persistent have been the theories of monism and of dualism. On the one hand, monists (like Lauterpacht) argue that there is a single legal order with international law at the peak and all national rules below it in the hierarchy.  [1]  In contrast, under the dualist theory supported, supported by Oppenheim and Triepel, international and municipal are two different legal systems existing side by side but operating in different arenas.  [2]  Indeed, jus gentium is a law between independent states whereas domestic law applies within a state regulating the relations of its citizens with each other and with the executive. Accordingly, international law rules to be considered have to be domesticated through adoption or transformation by the national legislature. In general, it seems that various countries have adopted one or the other doctrine with many common law countries supporting the dualist view while civilian systems subscribe to the monist school of thought. Nevertheless, there are elements of both perspectives in the jurisprudence of many states. Therefore, the opposing schools of dualism and monism do not adequately reflect actual state practice.  [3]  Specifically, Fitzmaurice characterizes the monist-dualist controversy as unreal and artificial since each system is supreme in its own field.  [4]   Even though the English legal system tends to employ the dualist approach  [5]  , before forming a whether or not it never meets the law of the nations, an assessment of their attitude towards each other ought to be conducted. The position of English-municipal rules in international law Undoubtedly, in the practice of international courts and tribunals there is a dividing line between international and domestic law. They have established principles regarding the application of municipal law within the international legal system. As a general rule, a state cannot justify the violation of its international obligations by relying upon its domestic legal situation.  [6]  This provision has been established by state practice and decided cases. To start with, the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969 (hereafter VCLT) states that a party may not invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to perform a treaty.  [7]  In addition, non-compliance with municipal law rules on the competence to make treaties may not generally be invoked by a state to invalidate its consent to a convention, except if the infringement of its domestic law in question is manifest and concerned a rule of fundamental importance.  [8]   Apart from that, case-law illustrates the above principle. For instance, in the Alabama Claims Arbitration  [9]  , albeit the absence of British legislation necessary to intervene with the private construction and sailing of the ship concerned, Great Britain violated its obligations as a neutral in the United States Civil War by allowing the departure to occur. Further, reference should be made to the decision of the International Court of Justice in the Applicability of the Obligation to Arbitrate under Article 21 of the UN Headquarters Agreement of 26 June 1947  [10]  , where it was emphasized that the fundamental principle of international law is that international law prevails over domestic law.  [11]  This was re-affirmed in the La Grand  [12]  case, where the US procedural default rule could not affect the liability of the USA for the breach of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations 1963. Besides, it is obvious that there is a general duty for states to bring domestic law into conformity with international obligations. As shown in the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations  [13]  case, international law rules can be translated into internal law by any method that the domestic jurisdiction of states wishes to apply. Even a failure to bring municipal law into line with its international obligations is not in itself a direct contravention of international law and a violation occurs only when the state concerned could not fulfil its obligations on a specific occasion.  [14]   Additionally, it must be noted that international law cannot entirely ignore municipal law which plays a crucial role in the operation of the international legal machine.  [15]  We should not forget that domestic law may be used as evidence of international custom leading to the growth of this source. There have been occasions that were decided solely on the basis of the municipal law of a particular case.  [16]  What is more, in the case of Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia  [17]  it was underlined that domestic court decisions and legislative measures may comprise evidence of conduct by the state concerned which can essentially create international responsibility. As a result, internal law rules have numerous functions on the international plane and they should not be utterly marginalized. The attitude of English law to international law Aside from the response of the international legal apparatus to municipal rules, it is more essential to take note of the approach of the English legal system to the law of nations in our attempt to find whether they have a hidden meeting place. It is inevitable that the escalating permeation of international legal rules within domestic systems influences the way English law reacts to jus gentium. The next two sections pertaining to the status of international treaties and customary law in our domestic system will help us discover if the two systems merge. National legal systems are free to select how they implement these two sources of international law and their choice of materials varies greatly.  [18]  It is worth mentioning that there is a dichotomy between the rule for treaties and that for customary law, surrounding the application of international law by English courts.  [19]   Treaty Law Approach In England, the fact that the conclusion of treaties is within the prerogative of the Crown determines the way that treaty law is approached. There is no doubt that in the absence of a transformation doctrine, which leads to the conversion of international law into municipal law by an Act of Parliament, the executive would be able to legislate without the legislature.  [20]  This doctrine is an expression of the dualist position, separating the two systems of law and requiring the translation of treaties into domestic legislation.  [21]   One of the first cases establishing that a treaty cannot adversely impact private law rights unless it has been made a part of British law by Parliament is the Parlement Belge case.  [22]  This principle was reinforced in the International Tin Council Case  [23]  where Lord Oliver clarified that a treaty is not part of English law unless and until it has been incorporated into the law by legislation.  [24]  On the other hand, Jennings criticizes the doctrine in the above judgment because it underestimates the role of international law and creates a distance between the two systems.  [25]  Although only treaties in relation to the conduct of war and cession do not require transformation, Fox points out that the House of Lords in R v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate, ex. Parte Pinochet Ugarte (No. 3)  [26]  disregarded such a constitutional principle and implemented in English law unincorporated treaty obligations on the immunity of the Former Head of State.  [27]   Furthermore, the distinct reaction of the English legal system to the European Convention on Human Rights (hereafter ECHR) and to binding decisions of the United Nations should be examined. Since 1974, English courts have consistently taken ECHR into account while applying statutes, though it was unincorporated.  [28]  Andrew Cunningham maintains that such an approach is not well justified when other unincorporated conventions and instruments are sidestepped.  [29]  Nonetheless, an obscure point that should be elucidated is that the English legal system did not abandon dualism in human rights cases as it insists that an unincorporated treaty cannot prevail over a contradicting statute.  [30]  Even after the enactment of the Human Rights Act 1998 which incorporated the ECHR, the validity of any incompatible primary legislation might not be affected given the provision in section 3(1). As regards the resolutions of the Security Council, the UK has implemented the United Nat ions Act 1946. It is evident that even Security Council decisions are not self-executing and in the case of UN sanctions they can be only enforced as a consequence of this piece of domestic legislation with which the Crown can adopt Orders in Council. It is noteworthy that in spite of the Ponsonby rule, where signed treaties subject to ratification, acceptance, approval or accession have to be laid before Parliament at least twenty-one days before any of these actions is taken, the UK practice suggests that a ratified treaty becomes effective only in international law. Apparently, the English legal system is hesitant to apply directly treaty law in its municipal law. Yet, it is at least accepted that the text of Conventions can be used as an aid to statutory interpretation. Admittedly, in the Salomon  [31]  case it was made clear that the Crown does not intend to break an international treaty and the convention might be utilised when domestic legislation is ambiguous. The above principle was strengthened when Lord Diplock in Fothergill v Monarch Airlines  [32]  encouraged the courts to use the rules for interpretation of unincorporated treaties in the VCLT. Despite this, Gardiner has observed that the judiciary in England is not eager to apply the Vienna rules systematically, indicating a reluctance to acknowledge the importance of international law in the domestic system.  [33]   Customary International Law Approach Moreover, we need to analyse the status of customary international law in the English legal system to find out its relationship with the law of nations. The decided cases illuminate that the attitude of our domestic system towards customary international law is in a state of flux. Initially, the dominant British approach to international custom was the doctrine of incorporation where customary rules are regarded part of the land. According to Lord Talbot in Buvot v Barbuit  [34]  the law of nations in its full extent was part of the law of England. This principle was restated twenty-seven years later by Lord Mansfield in Triquet v Bath.  [35]   On the contrary, nineteenth century cases appear to displace the doctrine of incorporation by that of transformation.  [36]  In fact, the case of R v Keyn  [37]  demonstrates that a customary rule can become a rule of English law only if it is translated into the latter by statute or a judicial decision. Conversely, this judgment is considered to be equivocal since it dealt primarily with the existence of a rule of international law relating to jurisdiction in the territorial sea.  [38]  Mention should be also made to Lord Atkins speech in Chung Chi Cheung v The King  [39]  where he highlighted that international law is invalid unless adopted by the English law.  [40]  However, O Keefe claims that Lord Atkins statement did not mean that customary international law was not part of our municipal law.  [41]  Instead, his Lordship tried to pass the message that international custom does not take precedence over English law and it is admitted in our domestic legal system where it can play a vital role. It is axiomatic that the approach of the English judiciary to customary international law is relatively unstable. Although, Lord Denning followed the dualistic-transformation doctrine in R v Secretary of State for the Home Department ex parte Thakrar  [42]  , he changed his mind in Trendtex Trading Corporation Ltd v Central Bank of Nigeria  [43]  where he adopted the incorporation approach. This was because he believed that jus gentium does not recognise stare decisis and the latter doctrine would help English law to react to the frequent changes that customary international law undergoes. White feels that transformation is inflexible and the decision in Trendtex is welcome as it helps English courts to be more responsive to international law.  [44]  Yet, it ought to be clarified that in a case of conflict between international custom and an Act of Parliament, the statute prevails.  [45]   On balance, by bearing in mind the seminal decision in Trendtex which was followed by Maclaine Watson v Department of Trade and Industry  [46]  , OKeefe correctly deduces that dualism is the principal principle in English law which just permits customary international law a limited direct applicability.  [47]  Alternatively, in the light of recent cases he might have second thoughts for his conclusion. In particular, Lord Bingham in R v Jones  [48]  was unwilling to accept that international law is a part of our domestic legal system. As an alternative, he preferred that perspective expressed by Brierly that international law is one of the sources of English law.  [49]  Despite the fact that it was acknowledged that international custom may be assimilated into domestic criminal law, the incorporation approach was not applied to the international law crime of aggression.  [50]  Aside from this, in Al-Haq v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs   [51]  Cranston J recognised that customary international law applied in municipal law without transposition is inconsistent with our dualist system.  [52]   Consequently, it is clear that the question whether international custom ought to be incorporated into domestic law is tremendously complicated and according to Pill LJ is not susceptible to a simple or general answer.  [53]  Obviously, there are doubts even about the restricted direct applicability of customary international law in the English legal system. With regard to the role of the English judiciary, Capps supports that it acts as a gatekeeper between the international and our domestic legal order.  [54]   Non-justiciability issue and the relation of executive and judiciary A brief reference on the doctrine of non-justiciability will explain why the domestic legal system might be distant from the international legal order. It is inescapable that there might be questions of international law that English courts are not competent to answer. For example, in Buttes Gas and Oil Co v Hammer (No. 3)  [55]  , which concerned a dispute about the territorial waters of Sharjah in the Persia Gulf, an English court did not have the judicial standards to judge the issues of international law. Lord Wilberforce stressed the principle of judicial restraint in adjudicating upon the acts of foreign sovereign states.  [56]  Nevertheless, the non-justiciability rule is subject to exceptions. It is unavoidably inapplicable in instances relating to the transactions of foreign states which infringe international law. In illustration, the case of Kuwait Airways Corporation v Iraqi Airways Company  [57]  showed that an English court could not ignore a breach of inter national law committed by Iraq against Kuwait as far as the violation was acknowledged.  [58]   It should not be omitted that the special nature of international law is reflected in the practice of the British courts which will defer to the executive on certain factual issues. The courts need to seek the guidance of the Foreign Office which produces certificates on the determination of a number of topics such as the sovereign status of a foreign state, the recognition of governments, the commencement and termination of a state of war against another country and the incidence of diplomatic immunity.  [59]  Such certificates are conclusive when they are unambiguous as to facts based on the one voice doctrine where the judiciary and the executive ought to follow the same line on matters relating to foreign affairs.  [60]  In the case of R v Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, ex parte Trawnik  [61]  it was maintained that a certificate under the State Immunity Act 1978 is not subject to judicial review unless it constitutes a nullity. On the other hand, it is worth noting that the courts may sometimes go outside the information given in the Foreign Office certificate in their attempt to resolve the issue before them. This was proved in the case of Re Al-Fin Corporations Patent  [62]  where it was held that Foreign Office certificates are not considered as conclusive in the interpretation of statutes or the construction of documents. Conclusion In conclusion, it is plain that there are numerous difficulties raised in this complex area of the interaction of international and municipal law. Nevertheless, the person reading the International News section in a British newspaper will realise that in spite of the preference shown to the dualist approach by the English legal system and its various differences with the international legal apparatus, the two systems trust each other and have some meeting places. As we have seen, the international legal machine takes heed of municipal rules and at the same time in the United Kingdom judicial notice is taken of the rules of public international law. Even though treaty and customary international law need to be exchanged to domestic currency, the English legal order and the law of nations are not completely distinct legal systems and indisputably influence each other. A happy relationship exists between international and domestic law but it will always experience changes.

The Blind Heart in Carver’s Cathedral Essay -- Carver Cathedral Essays

The Blind Heart in Raymond Carver's Cathedral  Ã‚   A person’s ability to see is often taken for granted as it is in "Cathedral" by Raymond Carver. Although the title suggests that the story is about a cathedral, it is really about two men who are blind, one physically, the other psychologically. One of the men is Robert, the blind friend of the narrator’s wife; the other is the narrator-husband himself. The husband is the man who is psychologically blind. Carver deftly describes the way the husband looks at life: from a very narrow-minded point of view. Two instances in particular illustrate this. The first is that the husband seems to believe that the most important thing to women is being complimented on their looks; the second is that he is unable to imagine his wife’s friend Robert as a person, only as a blind man. Carver consistently characterizes the husband as the real blind man because he is ignorant of so many simple things in life. One of the first hints of the husband’s blindness is addressed early in the story when the husband thinks about the blind man’s wife and says, Imagine a woman who could never see herself as she was seen in the eyes of her loved one. A woman who could go on day after day and never receive the smallest compliment from her beloved. A woman whose husband could never read the expression on her face, be it misery or something better. (1055) The husband seems to be saying that women need to be seen, that this is the most important or only important thing in their lives. He forgets that Robert can hear his wife’s voice, smell her perfume, enjoy her personality, and touch her skin. According to Dorothy Wickenden "Cathedral" is a story about ignorance and vulnerability – the deep-seated... ...is blind. He constantly disregards his sight which he takes for granted. The husband is so narrow-minded and content within his own world, he neglects to "see" the rest of the world. Marc Chenetien said it best: "A spark of hope in ‘Cathedral’ tends to give a potentially new agenda to stories whose ultimate promise seems to remain that blindness unavoidably undercuts all awakenings" (30). Works Cited Allen, Bruce. "Carver." Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. Roger Matuz. New York: Gale Research, 1989. 55:103. Burgeja, Michael J. "Carver." Short Story Criticism. Ed. Shelia Fitzgerald. Pasadena: Salem Press, 1990. 8:23. Carver, Raymond. "Cathedral" The Harper Anthology of Fiction: Ed. Sylvan Barnet. New York: HarperCollins, 1991. 1052-1063. Chenetien, Marc. "Carver." Short Story Criticism. Ed. Sheila Fitzgerald. Pasadena: Salem Press, 1990. 8:44.

Environmental Pollution by Cars Essay

Environmental issues have become a major concern in recent years. With global warming and climate change topping the agenda of many environmental groups and NGOs, it is hard for government as well as the general public to ignore the fact that our planet is changing rapidly. As a result of mass-scale industrialization and a rapid shift in lifestyles over the past century, the resources of our planet have been stretched to the limit. This situation will not only lead to a shortage of certain precious resources, including fresh water and food, in the years to come but will lead to a considerable rise in pollution. Carbon emissions produced by automobiles, airplanes and industrial equipment are the primary source of pollution world over. However, it is the consumption of energy by households and automobiles that make the major contribution towards the world’s carbon footprint (Cast 24). With United States being the largest economy and the most developed nation, it is no surprise that we are the largest polluters on earth. It is therefore imperative for us to lead by example and take some action in order to reduce our contribution towards global pollution. This essay will discuss whether it is possible to reduce fuel consumption by cars and if there are any alternative sources of energy for cars. (Cast 35) Fuel Consumption by Cars: As mentioned earlier, automobiles are one of the largest fuel consumers and therefore are a major contributor towards pollution. For this particular reason, environmental groups and even governments in some countries have been encouraging people to minimize the use of private transport and use other alternatives such as public transport, cycling, telecommuting etc (Cast 39). It should however be noted that not all alternatives to private transportation suit the needs of individuals and therefore it is very likely people will continue to use private transportation. A more practical approach towards the reduction of fuel consumption therefore will be to switch to relatively environmentally friendly sources of energy (Cast 39). The electric car has long been presented as a true alternative to the vehicles that use an internal combustion engine. It utilizes chemical energy stored in batteries and emits little or zero carbon. Not only are these vehicles environmentally friendly but is also fuel efficient. Proponents of electric vehicles also argue that the cost of producing electric vehicles is much lower than standard vehicles (Boschert 90). The only pitfall with electric cars is that currently there are only limited cars available in the market that can be considered purely electrical. Major automobile manufacturers have been accused of trying to block the progress on this front. It is also important to note that whatever progress has been made for the development of electric cars, there are not sophisticated enough models available in the market to meet the demands of the customers or to compete with the standard products. Until that level of sophistication is achieved, it will not be possible for the electrical car models to replace their standard counterparts. It should also be noted that to make a transition from an ICE vehicle dominated market to a zero-emission vehicle market, proper infrastructure for the supply of electrical batteries will have to be developed. (Boschert 97-102) The new breed of hybrid vehicles, introduced by some leading automobile manufacturers such as Toyota and Ford, is a rather practical solution to the problem. Not only they allow consumers to make a rather smooth transition from carbon fuel consumption to electric fuel but also offer the features and benefits offered by the standard models (Boschert 140). Hybrid electric vehicles are also more durable as compared to ICEs and are more energy efficient. Market statistics indicate that HEVs are a more favourable option as compared to pure electric vehicles. With Toyota and Honda leading the market in the HEV sector other major players are also entering this arena including Audi, Nissan, Lexus and Ford. It should however be noted that production of Hybrid vehicles is more costly and therefore they are more expensive. However, with countries introducing legislations concerning the environment and introducing subsidies for environmentally friendly vehicles, this is likely to change in the years to come. (Boschert 151) Criticism of ‘Green Cars’: Although, going green sounds to be the next big thing not only for car makers but also a number of other manufacturing organizations, there has been some level of opposition to this new wave of environmental obsession. Organizations tied to major oil revenues are one of the major opponent who argue that a radical shift to ‘greener’ cars will damage the economy and will lead to a considerable loss of jobs in certain sectors. It is also argued that electric vehicles or HEVs still have some environmental impact and are not completely emission-free as is usually argued. In addition to this, electric or hybrid cars are also more costly, hence making them an unfavourable choice for the consumer. (Boschert 211) Conclusion: The rapid change in our environment demands that we take immediate action. One of the areas that we need to address in this respect is to reduce the consumption of planet’s resources and to minimize the carbon footprint produced by us. As automobiles are one of the major producers of carbon emission, automobile manufacturers are investing considerable resources in development of environmentally friendly products.However, they still have a long way to go and a considerable level of development has to be made. Work Cited Cast, C. Vance. â€Å"Where Does Pollution Come From? † Barron’s Educational Series April, 1994. http://www. amazon. com/Where-Does-Pollution-Clever-Calvin/dp/0812015711/ref=sr_1_13? ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1207538767&sr=8-13 Boschert, Sherry. â€Å"Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America†, New Society Publishers December, 2006 http://www. amazon. com/Plug-Hybrids-CarsRechargeAmerica/dp/0865715718/ref=sr_1_8_s9_rk? ie=UTF8&s=books&s9r=8a585b4317a113eb0117a8105c020138&itemPosition=8&qid=1207538919&sr=1-8

Explain the theory of Virtue Ethics Essay

Aristotle originally introduced virtue Ethics to society in ancient Greek times. Virtue Ethics tells us that we should look at the character of the person instead of the actions or duties a person performs. Instead of concentrating on what is the right thing to do, virtue ethics asks how you can be a better person. Aristotle claims that leading a virtuous life is easy, and those who do, do so to be happy. Happiness is the ultimate goal for everyone in life. To become a better person, you must practice virtuous acts regularly. After a while, these acts will become routine and so the virtuous acts will be nothing more than everyday life and the person a virtuous person. Aristotle said that although virtues should become a habit we must never forget that we behave in such a way because it is right. For example, if a singer practices singing everyday, they will become better at it and used to doing it. This is the same as people who practice their virtues and soon automatically act in the right way, by practicing our skills we improve them, becoming happier. Virtues should not be an effort, but simply a part of everyone’s personality. Aristotle says that virtue is something that we acquire and are not just born with, people are not inherently good or bad, but become good or bad according to the habits they develop. Aristotle said that a virtue was a ‘Golden Mean’ in between to vices. These ‘Vices’ are two extremes of a scale at opposite ends, one of excess and one of deficiency. For example the vices would be shamelessness and shyness, and the virtue modesty. Another example of this would be rudeness and a sense of humour as the two vices and the virtue as wittiness. Such virtues must be cultivated, we must learn when to use certain virtues and to what extent, for example we must not ever use humour in excess to act like a fool, but at the same time we must also not pass into rudeness. Two philosophers, Anscombe and MacIntyre say that there has been a mistake in how virtues have been portrayed. The majority of people look at the actions a person does to judge whether they are virtuous or not. The way in which we behave provides an opportunity for others to judge our virtues and vices. This however is not right. People should look at the character within and  look at what the person believes is right and how they think they should help people instead of what they do to help. A famous example of a virtuous person is Mother Theresa. She helped millions of suffering people across the world and for this became well known as a virtuous person. There are hundreds of other virtuous people who would have liked to have helped but were unable to do so in such a huge way who are not considered as virtuous, but these people are just as virtuous but not recognised for it. Aristotle tells us that we are most likely to learn virtuous behaviour from watching others. If we experience others being kind to us and see the happiness it creates we are more likely to practice it then if we were just told to do it. For example, if we were told to be courageous we may occasionally stand up for small things that we disagree with, but if we see someone telling others off for not doing the right thing then we are more likely to not allow bad behaviour towards ourselves. Aristotle said that the best way of becoming virtuous was to follow in the footsteps of a virtuous person, e.g. Mother Theresa and do what they do. Virtue Ethics is relative; Aristotle recognised that virtues in one country may not be the same as virtues in another. He believed that there was no absolute platonic good beyond our world. As virtues have evolved through habits of society it is probable that different societies would deem different actions good or bad. However there is no difference between the virtues of a community and individuals within that community, the supreme happiness that Aristotle talks about is one for the community, and not just and individual. MacIntyre suggests that philosophy is too far removed from ordinary life and said that it is not good enough that philosophers spend their time debating the nature of ethical language or forming reasoned theories of morality in a way that is far removed from real people and real life. All actions are done in order to reach an aim. A successive series of actions are also for an aim, for example getting up in to morning to go to work, is to make money, is to feed our families is to go on nice holidays is to but them nice things etc. all ultimate aims is to make people happy, everything is subordinate to the supreme good, which is happiness. Everyone has  different ideas of what happiness is and different things all make different people happy, and Aristotle called this feeling of all round well being eudemonia. Therefore, Virtue Ethics concentrates on what a person is then what a person does. Its aim is to achieve something, which people genuinely want rather then being based on arguably incoherent ideas about the after-life. It is a system, which can be easily applied and understood by all. It fits into a variety of philosophies, and religions, which both do and don’t include God. However, there are a few problems with Virtue Ethics. Ones of these which has been pointed out by MacIntyre is that although a virtue is the ‘golden mean’ between two vices it cannot be applied to all virtues. Virtues such as promise keeping, loyalty, and compassion do not fall between any two vices and so Aristotle’s theory of this does not really work. Another problem with this theory is that it is of little help to people faced with a moral dilemma. It does not help them make a decision like other theories such a natural law or utilitarianism.

Prejudice and Discrimination Article

Prejudice and Discrimination Article Free Online Research Papers Everyone knows that each country will have some sort of prejudice and discrimination happening within the nation. Not every country will let the discrimination and discrimination among the people lead into such things as wars, segregation, political unrest, and poverty, while other countries cannot seem to do much to stop things from occurring. Today the discussion will be about the discrimination and prejudice which Black Africans and Colored face in South Africa as well as the different races and ethnicities within South Africa. Cultures, Races, and Ethnic Groups First we need to take a good look at the meaning of culture, race, and ethnicity to better understand how each goes together. Culture deals with the values, beliefs, behaviors, and material objects, which help, form a way of life for people. Race is when people are, categorized by the biological traits in which those in the society share, such as whites, African American, Asian, and others. Some might be classified as a ce rtain race due to traits such as the hair, skin color, facial features, or even body shape. Ethnicity is dealing with shared cultural heritage based on ancestors, language, and religions, which those people share. As we see these three things can go together, but they are also not alike in some ways as well. (Macionis, 2006) South Africa is comprised of many different languages, cultures, religions, and races. The nation consists of about â€Å"75 percent black, 14 percent white, 9 percent Colored, which is mixed racial heritage, and two percent Asian† as far as races go. (Knight and Mabunda, 2000) Then the races are divided out even more to form â€Å"ethnic groups with blacks being 5.6 million Xhosa, 5.3 million Zulu, and 4.2 million English† and â€Å"the 3.6 million Colored coming from many origins with a mixture of white, black and Asian ancestries† while the â€Å"6 million whites are about 3.6 million Afrikaner and 2.4 English heritages. Racism is the belief that one racial category is innately superior or inferior to another. There are many cases where one race has killed another race just because they were different. A race is a socially constructed category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important. People may classify one another racially based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, hair texture, and body shape. (Macionis, 2006). Race and ethnicity sometimes can be easily confused. The only way to clearly define the difference in the two is this: race refers to a person’s biological phenotype. Examples of races are Asian, African American, Indian, Caucasian, and so on. Ethnicity refers to a person’s cultural characteristics. Ethnicity is commonly defined by language, customs, or culture, common ancestors, and religion. Due to the countrys great ethnic diversity, South Africa has no single national culture. Ethnic and cultural assimilation have begun slowly to change this situation, but cultural differences still tend to correspond closely with racial ones, and each ethnic group may be identified with a more or less distinctive culture. At least 77% of South Africans are black Africans. Despite the effects of urbanization and westernization, (most black South Africans speak English or Afrikaans as well as an African mother tongue), the majority remain very poor and live rural and necessarily simple lives. Culture among black South Africans is consistent but by no means homogenous; marked distinctions can still be made along ethno-linguistic lines. South Africas policy of black economic empowerment (BEE) is not simply a moral initiative to redress the wrongs of the past. It is a pragmatic growth strategy that aims to realize the countrys full economic potential. In the decades before South Africa achieved democracy in 1994, the apartheid government systematically excluded African, Indian and colored people from meaningful participation in the countrys economy. This inevitably caused much poverty and suffering and a profoundly sick economy. The distortions in the economy eventually led to a crisis, started in the 1970s, when gross domestic product (GDP) growth fell to zero, and then hovered at about 3.4% in the 1980s. At a time when other developing economies with similar resources were growing, South Africa was stagnating. South African Colored culture is not easy to define as it refers to all people not categorized as white, black or Asian under racial classifications during apartheid. The first Colored people of South Africa were the slaves brought to the Cape after 1652 by the Dutch from the Dutch East Indies. The descendants of these people are sometimes referred to as Cape Malays. The South African Colored belief system of the descendants of slaves and exiled political prisoners brought here from the East by the Dutch is rooted in Islam. Among the political prisoners captured during their fight for freedom were holy men of noble birth who read secretly from the Koran to their people. (South African Tourism Research Site) The literature on transitional justice relates mechanisms such as truth commissions to the politics of negotiations. Such mechanisms are considered necessary to effect a smooth transition in circumstances where the institutions of the old order remain to a greater or lesser degree in place, yet are perceived as being unable or unwilling to facilitate the transition to a more democratic culture. In South Africa, as in many other emerging democracies, a crisis of legitimacy afflicted institutions such as the judiciary and security forces; they were thus seen as being constrained in their capacity to usher in a new order founded on democratic values especially for issues of accountability and prosecutions. Yet the need for these special transitional mechanisms implies a weakness or vulnerability in the new democracys ability to effectively affect the institutions of the old government and ensure political stability and peace. Thus in South Africa, for example, the amnesty provisio ns that formed one of the key planks of the TRC resulted from an effective refusal by the former apartheid governments security forces to guarantee peaceful elections without a reciprocal agreement by the premier liberation movement, the African National Congress (ANC), to provide some form of amnesty. Truth commissions are far from being merely a technical bridge between old and new; rather, they reflect the lines of ongoing contestation among and within opposing camps. The parliamentary debate that shaped the South African truth commission, for example, was extremely lengthy and heated, with the forces of the old order trying to limit the power and scope of the commission. Reference Page Macionis, 2006 Knight and Mabunda, 2000 South African Tourism Research Site The African National Congress (ANC Research Papers on Prejudice and Discrimination ArticleAssess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeWhere Wild and West Meet19 Century Society: A Deeply Divided EraBringing Democracy to AfricaHonest Iagos Truth through DeceptionHip-Hop is ArtAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into AsiaThe Hockey GameQuebec and CanadaCanaanite Influence on the Early Israelite Religion

Beauty When the Other Dancer is the Self

Beauty When the Other Dancer is the Self Context of the Essay This essay focuses on an essay that was written by Alice Walker. The essay focuses on the early part of her life as a child, a teenager and a young adult. During this time, she comes across a lot of challenges that affect her self-esteem, behaviour and relationship with herself and other members of the society.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Beauty: When the Other Dancer is the Self specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As a result, her life changes drastically with the changes in her self-consciousness and the manner in which she deals with these encounters. The main aim of this essay therefore is to critically analyze the essay with the help of supporting evidences and apply the lessons learned on real life situation. Presentation With the help of her essay, Walker is able to write her own autobiography of her early years of life. She begins the essay by presenting her early years of life. The year is 1947 and she is two and a half years old. Her mother is busy preparing them for the county fair that her father only wants to take three of his eight children. This is because the car that he will use to take the children to the fair only has room for three. Therefore, the one who look best or impress their father will get the chance. It is therefore the work of Alices mother to prepare all the eight children for her husband to pick the three. As they line up, Alice says, â€Å"Take me DaddyI am the prettiest† (Walker 442). Being the last-born and the prettiest girl, Alice is chosen together with two other children. As she continues with her essay, Alice also states that she was a bright child in both academic and performing arts. In 1950, she is picked again to give the Easter speech. Unlike the other children who stammer or forget their lines, Alice is fluent and eloquent. She also dresses magnificently and looks beautiful. People therefore cannot help but comment that, â€Å"That girl is a little mess† (Walker 442). As she grows older, she gets to be a tomboy and dress on a cowboy outfit just like her brothers. The go to watch western films together and play cowboy games with his brothers. Here, they pretend as if they are cowboys who are hunting down Indian cattle rustlers. However, things took a different turn when Alice reached 8 years of age. First, her father buys his brothers BB guns. Since she is a girl, her father cannot buy a gun for her. She therefore had to stick with the bow and arrow. This reduces her ranks in their playing games from a cowboy to an Indian.Advertising Looking for essay on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Her brothers now shoot at her since she is an outlaw. From the tone of her voice, it is evident that she is not happy with her new character in the games (Walker 443). This is as a result of gender equality where females h ave always been viewed as a weaker sex in the society. Alices fate then becomes worse when one of his brothers shoot him with his BB gun. She is shot on the eye and develops a serious injury. Her brothers come up with a lie to cover up the story of the real incident. However, her parents soon find out the truth and by the time that she is taken to the doctor (almost a week later), it is too late to save her eye. She had developed a glob of white scar tissue on the spot where she was shot by her brothers BB gun. In addition, the eye cannot see at all. She becomes even more terrified when she hears the doctor saying, â€Å"If one is blind, the other will likely become blind too† (Walker 443). The white globe and being blind on one eye seems to affect the character and self-esteem of Alice. All through her life, Alice had used her beauty to gain her happiness. It is due to the fact that she was pretty that she was chosen by her father to go to the fair. It is also due to her bea uty that she was the best student in class and recited the Easter Sunday speech at ease. Now that she only has one eye and a white globe, she cannot stare at people. She separates herself from her other siblings and children. This is because, whenever she wants to interact with them, they normally comment on her eye. This really hurts her feelings. To make the matters worse, they have to move into a new county. The school that she goes to was once a prison and had an electric chair; this affects her thoughts and gives her nightmares. She is however forced to go back to her old church school where other children still make fun of her. One of them calls her, â€Å"the one eyed bitch† (Walker 443). At school, she begins to perform poorly. It is only one teacher who understands her and treats her with respect. During this time, her mother becomes very ill and she is afraid that she might die. In addition, her cousin comes to visit but since she has a low self-esteem, she hides. D uring all this time, Alice keeps on asking her family members if she had changed. They always tell her that she has not changed (Walker 443).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Beauty: When the Other Dancer is the Self specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More However, when she is 14 years old, the white globe is removed from her eye. She is therefore able to stare at people again. She becomes a bright student in class and manages to get the love of his dreams. Towards the end of her essay, it is evident that she is a successful woman in life. She is even able to see the beauty of the desert before she completely goes blind. Her main fear is that her daughter, Rebecca will recent her for her disability but to her surprise, she stares at her on night and tell her, â€Å"Mommy, there is a world in your eye† (Walker 443). At this point, she realises that she has been resenting herself for all the wrong reasons. She is howev er glad that her daughter is not embarrassed by her physical disability. Analysis and significance of the Essay This essay presents how a small factor occurrence can change the life of an individual. There are many people who have been living normal lives but as a result of an injury, sickness or accidents, their lives have changed and their dreams have been shattered. This comes about as a result of a change in their lifestyles, character, self-esteem and relationship with other individuals. Alices life changed once she got an injury on her eye. Her beauty, which was her advantage in life, was shattered. When she used to pray at night, she did not pray for sight but for beauty (Walker 443). This therefore shows how much she valued her beauty. The same theory applies to individuals who value a specific part of their life and lose it. A good example is Magic Johnson of the LA Lakers. He was diagnosed with the HIV virus at the peak of his career. As a result, he had a difficult time a ccepting this fact. This made him retire from professional basketball. However, when he accepted his status and publicly announced it, he gained public support. He came back to the game and was chosen as an All Star player in 1996. It is therefore essential to believe in yourself no matter what. Work Cited Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers Gardens: Womanist Prose. Michigan: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983. Print

Growing and Maintaining Your Fig (Ficus Carica)

Growing and Maintaining Your Fig (Ficus Carica) Common fig (Ficus carica) is a small tree native to southwest Asia but widely planted in North America.  This edible fig is widely grown for its fruit and is commercially grown in the United States in California, Oregon, Texas, and Washington. The fig has been around since the dawn of civilization and was one of the first plants ever to be cultivated by humans. Fossilized figs dating to 9400-9200 BC were found in an early Neolithic village in the Jordan Valley. Archaeology expert Kris Hirst says figs were domesticated five thousand years earlier than millet or wheat. Taxonomy of the Common Fig Scientific name: Ficus caricaPronunciation: FIE-cussCommon name(s): Common fig. The name is very similar in French (figue), German (feige), Italian and Portuguese (figo).Family: Moraceae or mulberryUSDA hardiness zones: 7b through 11Origin: native to Western Asia but distributed by man throughout the Mediterranean region.Uses: Garden specimen; fruit tree; seed oil; latexAvailability: somewhat available, may have to go out of the region to find the tree. The North American Timeline and Spread There are no native temperate figs in the United States. Members of the fig family are located in tropical forests of the extreme southern portion of North America. The first documented fig tree brought to the New World was planted in Mexico in 1560. Figs were then introduced into California in 1769. Many varieties have since been imported from Europe and into the United States. The common fig reached Virginia and the eastern United States in 1669 and adapted well. From Virginia, fig planting and cultivation spread to the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Botanical Description Leaf: deciduous leaves are palmate, deeply divided into 3 to 7 main lobes, and irregularly toothed on the margins. The blade is up to 10 inches in length and width, fairly thick, rough on the upper surface, softly hairy on the underside. Flower: small and inconspicuous Trunk/bark/branches: droop as the tree grows, and will require pruning for clearance and weight reduction; Breakage: susceptible to breakage either at the crotch due to poor collar formation, or the wood itself is  weak and tends to break Propagation Fig trees have been raised from seed, even seeds extracted from commercial dried fruits. Ground or air-layering can be done satisfactorily, but the tree is most commonly propagated by cuttings of mature wood 2 to 3 years of age, 1/2 to 3/4 inches thick and 8 to 12 inches long. Planting must be done within 24 hours. The upper, slant cut end of the cutting should be treated with a sealant to protect it from disease, and the lower, flat, end with a root-promoting hormone. Common Varieties Celeste: a pear-shaped fruit with short neck and slender stalk. The fruit is small to medium and skin purplish-brown.Brown Turkey: broad-pyriform, usually without a neck. The fruit is medium to large and copper-colored. The main crop, begins in mid-July, is large.Brunswick: fruits of main crop are oblique-turbinate, mostly without neck. The fruit is of medium size, bronze or purple-brown.Marseilles: fruits of main crop round to oblate without a neck and on slender stalks. Figs in the Landscape Southern Living Magazine says that, in addition to being a delicious fruit, figs make beautiful trees in the Middle, Lower, Coastal, and Tropical South. Figs are versatile and easy to grow. They grow the perfect fruit, they love the heat, and the insects just seem to ignore them. You will have to share your tree with birds that flock in for a meal and partake of the fruits of your labor. This tree is a birders dream but a fruit pickers nightmare. Netting may be used to discourage fruit damage. Protection From Cold Figs cant stand temperatures that consistently fall below 0 degrees F. Still, you can actually get away with growing figs in colder climates if planted against a south-facing wall to benefit from the radiant heat. Figs also grow well and look great when espaliered against a wall. When temperatures dip below 15 degrees, mulch or cover trees with fabric. Protect the roots of container-growing figs by moving them indoors or transplant them to a frost-free area when temperatures fall below 20 degrees F. Avid fig growers in cold climates actually dig up the root ball, lay the tree in a mulching ditch and cover with their preferred compost/mulch. The Extraordinary Fruit What is commonly accepted as a figs fruit is technically a syconium with a fleshy, hollow receptacle with a small opening at the apex partly closed by small scales. This syconium may be obovoid, turbinate, or pear-shaped, 1 to 4 inches long, and varies in color from yellowish-green to copper, bronze, or dark-purple. Tiny flowers are massed on the inside wall. In the case of the common fig, the flowers are all female and need no pollination. Favorite Tips Where Do You Plant?: Figs require full sun all day to produce edible fruit. Fig trees will shade out anything growing beneath the canopy so nothing needs to be planted under the tree. Fig roots are abundant, traveling far beyond the tree canopy and will invade garden beds. How Do I Prune and Fertilize? Fig trees are productive with or without heavy pruning. It is essential only during the initial years. Trees should be trained with a low crown for fig collection and to avoid trunk-breaking limb weight. Since the crop is borne on terminals of previous years wood, once the tree form is established, avoid heavy winter pruning, which causes loss of the following years crop. It is better to prune immediately after the main crop is harvested, or with late-ripening cultivars, summer prune half the branches and prune the remainder the following summer. Regular fertilizing of figs is usually necessary only for potted trees or when they are grown on sandy soils. Excess nitrogen encourages foliage growth at the expense of fruit production. Any fruit that is produced often ripens improperly. Fertilize a fig tree if the branches grew less than a foot the previous year. Apply a total of 1/2 - 1 pound of actual nitrogen, divided into three or four applications beginning in late winter or early spring and ending in July. Fig Pests: From a Perdue University Report Fig trees are prone to attack by nematodes, but weve not found them a problem. Still, a heavy mulch will discourage many insects with the  proper application of nematicides. A common and widespread problem is leaf rust caused by Cerotelium fici. The disease brings about premature leaf fall and reduces fruit yields. It is most prevalent during rainy seasons. Leaf spot results from infection by Cylindrocladium scoparium or Cercospora fici. Fig mosaic is caused by a virus and is incurable. Affected trees must be destroyed.

Referee Report on a one of the starred readings Essay

Referee Report on a one of the starred readings - Essay Example mathematical and statistical analysis, the authors explored each of three possible explanations – cohort size, child endowment, or birth plannedness channels – and concluded that birth planning accounted for an extra 0.2 years or two to three months of schooling characteristically enjoyed by children born in auspicious years. The paper is well written. The authors described, with the use of a professional writing style that is simple and easy to understand, the topic and explained the purpose of the research clearly. They likewise were sufficiently objective in describing the limitations of the study, balancing the implications of the results and raising issues for further scientific investigation, such as the pervasiveness of superstition in influencing parental decisions for child bearing. Their grasp of Vietnamese culture is, in the absence of this reviewer’s prior knowledge on the subject, quite comprehensive, informational and fascinating. The diagrammatic approach in outlining the Vietnamese zodiac drives home the point that in Eastern cultures, many life-and-death decisions are determined by the stars. This may not sound scientific, but observing the fast economic growth rates and ongoing business successes of the developing Asian economies, it is easy to fall into the trap of questioning the wisdom of human decisions backed by millennia of experience. Do and Phung attempted to explain in a rational manner what seems like a sophisticated decision-making model based on Vietnamese culture’s reliance on the zodiac and linked this with the finding that large birth cohorts coincided with the auspicious years. They observed that, over the twenty-one years of the sample study, â€Å"auspicious† cohorts were schooled for 0.2 years more than the â€Å"non-auspicious† cohorts. Many economic research studies are based on statistics that researchers hope are reliable. The problem is that in most totalitarian governments, such as Vietnam’s, statistics

Underground space use with urban sustainability Essay

Underground space use with urban sustainability - Essay Example Underground Space Use with Urban Sustainability Moreover, city planners are faced with a huge task of ensuring that services in urban areas are not disrupted; despite the high number of people streaming to urban centers, the quality of life in cities has to remain unchanged. Moreover, today, there is increasing advocacy on sustainable developments especially with regard to built environment. With increasing awareness on the need to preserve the environment, people are demanding stringent sustainability measures in built environment. Therefore, city planners face a daunting task of deciding the best way to come up with city master plans that ensure sustainability. An approach that has remained untapped in the development of many cities; the approach  promises great opportunities for expansion of cities within sustainable limits is underground urban infrastructure development. Bobylev (2009, 1129) observed that, in order for investors to develop private housing, they require enough transport infrastructure and enough energy supply , which depends on the transport available in such cities. This calls for the need to have proper integration of urban infrastructure development and sustainable development in cities. Therefore, to ensure sustainability despite the growing of urban cities, underground urban development promises potential opportunities, if proper city master plans are prepared to highlight proper urban underground infrastructure designs. Chow et al (2) noted that the ability to maximize space in towns and urban cities would be the greatest challenge for engineers and architectures in the near future. One of the benefits of urban underground infrastructure is that it offers city planners opportunities and space to relocate infrastructure projects such as railway lines, roads, recreational facilities, stores, sports facilities among other amenities. The need for mass transportation services and modern infrastructural development requires new and innovative ways to use the available dwindling space in cities (Chow et al, 3). As a result, efficient use of underground space will ensure planners, developers, landowners and other parties have exciting and untapped opportunities to expand construction projects. Many cities have managed to save huge spaces by designing efficient underground master plans for their transport systems, which has helped not only in reducing congestion but also in maximizing utilization of space in cities. One of the best examples of the huge impacts of underground urban master plan is the London underground station, an underground facility that has managed not only to reduce traffic in the city but also has reshaped the city and utility of space to the best extent possible. The design and the emergence of the London underground station challenged the limits of engineering and city master planning across the globe. The station is an excellent benchmark of what would become of many cities in the future. Space is rapidly becoming scarce while demand for sustainability and the demand for transportation services have increased. Therefore, the London station is an excellent case of typical modernism (Wright, 2011). The tube as it is commonly known made it possible for people to travel between several stations within London at record speeds. As a result, people were no longer willing to live in the city but opted to live away from the city where they can spend a few minutes to get to London (Wright, 2011). T

Marketing Planning Process in a Brewery Case Study

Marketing Planning Process in a Brewery - Case Study Example The environment in which business operates has a greater influence on their successes or failures. There is a strong linkage between the changing circumstances, the strategic response of the business to such changes and the performance. It is therefore important to understand the forces of external environment the way they will influence this linkage. The external environment which is dynamic and changing holds both opportunities and threats for the organizations. The changes in the environment affect the risk levels of various investments to be made in the new situations. The macro environments in which all firms operate broadly consist of the economic environment, the political and legal environment, the socio cultural aspects and the environment related issues. The technological temper and its progress has been the key driver behind the major changes witnessed in the external environment making it increasingly complex to enter in other countries (Ross, 1-3). The company needs to analyze the kind of impact the export may bring in their industry as the impacts are never same for all industries. The emerging demographic profile of any country will have very different consequences for businesses. The former will face an adverse effect, the latter will have a positive effect and this needs to be analyzed and integrated into strategic decision making (Yvonne, 2004, 14). The Marcom objectives (Marketing communication and advertising mix methods) set by the Brewery industry are as follows: (i) According to cost, targeting and response Advertising cost includes cost of design, production such as printing and media includes, local radio, display advertisement etc. For effective marketing communication, modern organizations should learn about the methods that are available in the market. Organizations should keep up with market developments so as to give effective decisions about where to put marketing advertising emphasis, and what marketing communication 'mix' of methods to use. (ii) According to design, production and the role of external agencies Company's image is formed by advertising material and campaign. And company can take the help of external agencies and a good designer. The role of design and advertising agencies are: a. Concerned with planning advertisement campaign and b. Implementing advertising or promotional 'campaigns' on company's behalf (iii) Use simple language for customer understands Customers are people with multi options from all sources and having good technical or detailed understanding of products and services. The effective advertising and marketing is the ability to convey complex issues to the customer in an interesting, relevant, meaningful, and easy manner. 3. SWOT and PESTEL Analysis A SWOT analysis summarizes the key issues from the external environment and the internal capabilities of an organization those which become critical for strategy development. The aim through this is to identify the extent to which the strengths and weaknesses are relevant to and capable of dealing with changes in the

Use an example of your choice to discuss how corporate restructuring Essay - 1

Use an example of your choice to discuss how corporate restructuring transformed market, productive and financial performance - Essay Example It can be affirmed that the competition level and the changing preferences of customers have changed the business environment at large. In this regard, the management of the companies have witnessed to face adequate complexities along with challenges in performing operations suitably in accordance with market demand (Froud & et. al., 2006). Subsequently, business organisations adopt corporate restructuring strategy with the aim of enhancing their business performances. Corporate restructuring is utilised as a procedure of changing business process, investment structure or organisational arrangement, so that business operations can be conducted with better competitiveness and effectiveness. Moreover, the strategy also aids business organisations to build flexibility in their operational activities (ABeam Consulting, 2004). Barclays PLC is a UK based multinational banking as well as financial service entity. The company offers various services that include credit cards, investment banking, personal banking and wealth management among others. Presently, the company has undertaken restructuring strategy with the aim of improving its business sustainability and competitiveness in the long-run (Barclays, 2014). With this concern, the essay emphasises analysing the strategy of corporate restructuring and its importance in improving productive functions, market operations and financial performances through using an example of Barclays. In the present competitive and changing market scenario, business organisations are required to adopt effective strategies with the intention of ensuring that their respective operational functions are performed in a profitable and competitive manner. In this respect, the notion of corporate restructuring is utilised immensely by the management team of organisations in order to improve business and operational performances. Conceptually, the notion of corporate restructuring is

Criminal Justice, What are the affects of victimization on victims and Research Paper

Criminal Justice, What are the affects of victimization on victims and their families - Research Paper Example This is because they and their families experience long lasting physical, emotional and psychological damage after being treated unjustly. Victims sometimes get to suffer from the effects of victimization for the rest of their lives, the greatest effect being psychological in nature according to Hess and Orthmann (28). The effects of victimization can be felt short term or long term. Whatever the duration that it takes, the negative effects of victimization are often difficult to mitigate according to Lerner and Montada (25). Victimized people get confused, frustrated, fearful and angry, at worst going through trauma. They forever want answers as to why they experienced whatever happened and why it happened to them. Despite the victims having knowledge of who did that to them and where to go to get help and justice, they always fear and feel insecure. This is because they may not know who to trust and rely on for help and support. Victimized persons and their families suffer a lot physically, psychologically, emotionally and financially (Lerner and Montada 32). Furthermore, they are sometimes over burdened by the complexity of the criminal justice system. People who are victimized many times find it very difficult to believe and accept that they have become victims of crime and that there is nothing they can do about it. Initially, they make themselves believe that the crime occurred in their dreams and not in reality hence they live in great denial. These reactions may last for some months or even years depending on how traumatized a victim is according to Lerner and Montada (54). It is common for victims to act like children and get taken care of by other people surrounding them. Victims get emotions like anger, guilt, grief, shame, confusion, frustration and fear. Some victims get angry with their offenders, family members, friends, service providers, the criminal justice system and even themselves. Victims have a strong desire to get even and bring

Nursing Informatics Topic Meaningful Use for Nurses Implications and Coursework

Nursing Informatics Topic Meaningful Use for Nurses Implications and Recommendation Guidelines - Coursework Example The program was based on the principle that all patients have the right to the best available care at the lowest possible cost. As such, various care providers are encouraged to take part in the program by complying with the provisions that guide the use of certified Electronics Health Records. Practitioners and care providers are required to meaningfully use the available EHR to be able to meet various objectives and goals that will have a positive impact on patient care. Through it, health care facilities have been able to embrace health care IT while also impacting positively on the wellbeing of the patient. According to the HITECH Act, health care providers and professionals who do not exhibit meaningful use of the certified Electronic Health Records may receive less than one hundred percent of the medical fees for the professional services that they offer (Health IT. Gov, 2015). This is revenue penalty that is strategically put in place to help promote the program and inspire use of IT in health records. The available incentives and penalties have encouraged care providers to come up with the best EHR solutions and approaches that will ensure that the workflow needs are met as per the requirements of the HITECH Act. There are several objectives and benefits that are achieved when the Meaningful Use is implemented in a given health care setting. Cusack (2010) notes that Meaningful Use and EHR enhance quality, safety and efficiency of patient care while also minimizing health inequalities. Moreover, it enhances patient and family coordination during the care provision process thus improving the overall process. Meaningful care also facilitates the maintenance of privacy and the security of the patients’ health information. According to Tamara, McDonell, Helfrich, Jesse, Fihn & Rumsfeld (2010), privacy and security of the

Criminal Justice, What are the affects of victimization on victims and Research Paper

Criminal Justice, What are the affects of victimization on victims and their families - Research Paper Example This is because they and their families experience long lasting physical, emotional and psychological damage after being treated unjustly. Victims sometimes get to suffer from the effects of victimization for the rest of their lives, the greatest effect being psychological in nature according to Hess and Orthmann (28). The effects of victimization can be felt short term or long term. Whatever the duration that it takes, the negative effects of victimization are often difficult to mitigate according to Lerner and Montada (25). Victimized people get confused, frustrated, fearful and angry, at worst going through trauma. They forever want answers as to why they experienced whatever happened and why it happened to them. Despite the victims having knowledge of who did that to them and where to go to get help and justice, they always fear and feel insecure. This is because they may not know who to trust and rely on for help and support. Victimized persons and their families suffer a lot physically, psychologically, emotionally and financially (Lerner and Montada 32). Furthermore, they are sometimes over burdened by the complexity of the criminal justice system. People who are victimized many times find it very difficult to believe and accept that they have become victims of crime and that there is nothing they can do about it. Initially, they make themselves believe that the crime occurred in their dreams and not in reality hence they live in great denial. These reactions may last for some months or even years depending on how traumatized a victim is according to Lerner and Montada (54). It is common for victims to act like children and get taken care of by other people surrounding them. Victims get emotions like anger, guilt, grief, shame, confusion, frustration and fear. Some victims get angry with their offenders, family members, friends, service providers, the criminal justice system and even themselves. Victims have a strong desire to get even and bring

Business Management Theory Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Management Theory - Research Paper Example However, his efforts were supported by other professionals such as Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. In the year 1991, he made several contributions towards the management theory that are still in existence up to date as discussed below. The book of Management, Bus. Rev 3rd edition by Patrick J Montana and Bruce H Charnov states that Fredrick W Tailor was the first to make a formal attempt in the creation of management theory. He made wise decisions such as the decision to advocate an application of scientific method so as to work analysis and develop functional ways of putting the theories to work(Dale, 44). Long time before Tailor came up with theories, there was a common belief among the people that leaders not not made but are born. This belief was a great challenge to the formulated theories since the people could not support them. It became very cumbersome to speak of the aspect of theory management in such an environment whereby the fact that leaders could be trained was totally una cceptable. Towards the end of 19th century, the industry had greatly expanded and became complex therefore creating the need for better better understanding on matters to do with the management theory as well as the managerial technique development (Dale, 44). Due to the fact that Tailor got support from other professionals, Lillian Gilbreth and Frank who were pioneers in the area of motion studies on the job analysis and improvement in work efficiency. Franck used the term of therbligs to describe about seventeen motions that were different and were meant for the purpose of doing the job. Through listing the therbligs, Frank was capable of analyzing the job actions and seek to gain efficiency (Dale, 44). Taylor also played a big role in trying to motivate the workers through his theories, he advocated a piece rate so as to motivate the workers. He knew that motivating employees would enable them to be more productive, he therefore introduced a Gantt Chart as a management tool for t he purpose of scheduling work. The Gantt Chart accelerated the use of piece rate so as to record a normal production and a production bonus for motivating workers be more productive above the expected norm (Dale, 44) The Administrative theory that was created had five functions that characterized management as organizing, planning, commanding, controlling and coordinating. Fredrick Taylor, together with his colleagues in the management science movement came up with a theory which stipulated that workers had no intention to work , were very lazy, required a close supervision, had to be pushed by various threatening so as to be productive, lacked creativity and usually got challenged by the work (Montana, 23). However, the theory was opposed by the theory of McGregor which states that workers have a positive attitude towards work, practice high level of creativity, are ready to welcome various challenges, are more responsible and not be challenged by the work. As a result, the McGrego ry theory was more optimistic as compared to the Taylor`s theory since was a rather pessimistic assessment (Montana, 23) In the year 1991, Fredrick W Tailor made various contributions to the management theory as discussed in the book ‘Handbook of Media Management and Economics by Alan B Albarran’, Michael O Wirth and Chan-Olmsted. From this book, he made contributions on the management th

Development of Space Power in India

Development of Space Power in India SPACE POWER- A FORCE MULTIPLIER â€Å"The vastness of space is a key factor in the war-form of the future† Alvin Heidi Toffler[1] CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Space has always been a matter of great interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. The space warfare is as old as Indian mythology. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[2]. In the 17th century, astronomers pointed a new device called the telescope at the heavens and made startling discoveries[3]. On 03 Oct 1942, German scientists launched an A-4 rocket, which travelled a distance of 190 km and reached an altitude of over 80 km. Orbital operations started with Soviet Sputnik-1 satellite in 1957[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[5] Since then, the utilisation of space has been a matter of debate and controversies as far as direct war fighting military roles and missions are concerned. However, the support operations like Intelligence, communication and reconnaissance, which came first, did not face much of resistance. The benefits possible from the space-based support operations were realised very quickly and these operations were extended further to surveillance, mapping, navigation, ground mapping, environmental monitoring etc. Space systems have brought better intelligence and stronger defences by enabling the collection of new types of data and information; significantly increasing communications capabilities and capacities; revolutionizing precision navigation and timing; enriching science; establishing new markets; providing safer air, land, and sea transportation; and enabling faster disaster relief as well as more effective civil planning[6]. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[7] Also Knowledge is the purest form of power and is the reason that overhead surveillance, reconnaissance, and intelligence-gathering efforts are so important in both war and peace. Information delivered from above can be used to strengthen a friendly regime, discredit an enemy regime, or directly attack the morale of an adversarys frontline troops. They can detect missile launches, nuclear tests and they can provide secure real time communications all over the world. The resolution available with satellite reconnaissance is more than adequate for military needs. The accuracy of GPS is known to us all. In le ss hostile circumstances, the information might consist of humanitarian warnings about impending natural disasters or news about disaster-relief efforts[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Com munications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. In Indias context which has belligerent neighbours, space based capabilities are the definite force multiplier. In fact, military strategist call space the new ‘High Ground. Which will bring in revolutionary changes in military affairs. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[11] Space begins where satellites can maintain orbit (81 miles) and extends to infinity.[12] Power is control or authority to influence; the ability to produce an act or event.[13] And Space power is a nations ability to exploit and control the space medium to support and achieve national goals.[14] Gravity The driving force behind all orbital dynamics is the force of gravity and is defined by the law of universal Gravitation given by Isaac Newton in 1687. It states â€Å" Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the particle†.[15] Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[16] Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between the orbital plane of the satellite and the plane of the Earths equator. BY convention, it is measured anticlockwise from the equator to the orbital plane at the point where the satellite crosses, passing to north[17]. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as ‘polar orbits. ‘Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are ‘inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ‘ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be ‘seen by satelli te sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. Orbital Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to ‘decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[18] Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. Sun Synchronous orbit It is the orbit where in the satellite is used for surveillance at optical wave length and whose orbital motion will bring it periodically over the same area of interest at the same sunlight conditions from day to day. These orbital planes are called as Sun Synchronous orbit[19]. These are low earth orbits inclined at about 98 °. Semi-synchronous Orbit. This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. Molniya Orbit. This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[20] Geostationary Satellite As the orbital height increases, so orbital period increases. If the orbital height increases to 35875km, the orbital period will be synchronised with the rotation rate of the Earth. Such a satellite would be called a geosynchronous satellite. If these satellite have zero degree of inclination such that these satellites will appear stationary in the sky over a point on the equator to an observer on earth. Such a satellite would be called a geostationary satellite[21]. This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small ‘ of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. Geosynchronous Orbit has li ttle military or other uses because of its large ‘ of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term ‘geostationary, is tending to be replaced by ‘geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a ‘strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[22] Super-synchronous Orbit. The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[23] (a) Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[24]. It is through this zone that ballistic missiles must proceed during and after their boost phase and are most vulnerable to antiballistic missile (ABM) systems. However, minimum long-range effects from nuclear explosions are found at altitudes between 50 and 150 kilometers: above 50 kilometers, the mechanical effects of shockwave pressures almost disappear as a consequence of the relatively low air density; below 150 kilometers, the air density is still high enough to reduce the range of corpuscular radiation through di spersion and absorption so that the long-range thermal effect is also not maximum.[25] Therefore, even very powerful nuclear devises in the megaton range must be detonated at relatively close proximity to their intended target at NEO to be effective, although electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects could seriously disrupt unhardened electronic systems at long-range distances. Nevertheless, targets at NEO, compared to those at higher gravity well zones, are relatively vulnerable to Earth-based intervention because of an inherently short warning time available for the implementation of countermeasures and the minimal amount of energy that the enemy must expend to reach this zone. Conversely, a weapon system such as a fractional orbital bombardment system (FOBS) at NEO could attack targets on Earth with a minimum of warning[26]. (b) (c) The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[27]. (d) (e) LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. (f) (g) The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[28] Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[29]. The difference between space and the outer space is generally not recognised. But the former term is wider than the latter and means the whole universe including the earth while outer space means all spaces other than the earth. In fact, outer space begins where the earths atmosphere ends and extends on in all directions infinitely. The upper limit of the air space constitutes the lowest limit of outer space. The outer space in a broader sense also consists of the entire space beyond celestial bodies and their atmosphere. Celestial bodies include all land masses in space and their atmosphere except Earth. Therefore, air space is excluded from outer space. The diff erence between space and outer space is insignificant in so far as the exploration and use of such domain is concerned[30]. (h) The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[31]. (i) (j) During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[32]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[33] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two distin ct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[34] There are few of these set of fundamental issues which require to be vetted if we are to understand space power with the kind of clarity with which we now understand air power and if we are to understand their nexus[35]. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[36]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space will be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[37]. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[38] The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a military space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[39]. Air and Space relationship The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[40] The move from earth to space transitsis through the air environment, thereby inherently bringing about a linkage as no space launch or recovery can take place without transiting through the air medium. Any differentiation between the two would be superficial and indefinable. In future, the air and space mediums would provide a seamless environment where Trans Atmospheric Vehicles (TAVs) and re-usable hypersonic vehicles could exploit it freely. In addition, with increas ed proliferation of Ballistic Missiles and development of potent nuclear warheads, there is a need to extend the current Air Defence capabilities to space to ensure that the threats emanating from the air and space environment can be effectively tackled.[41] While the physical borders between the land, sea and air are readily evident, the physical border between air and space is not as clear. The atmosphere gradually disappears and space gradually starts. Furthermore, from a physical point of view, earths entire connection to space is through the atmosphere. Every movement into space begins with movement through air. Thus, from a physical point of view, space is linked with air.[42] Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[43] Space assets are differentiated from air platforms by being non-air breathing. Military force includes all of the civilian elements such as contractor support that are required to sustain air or space operations.[44] It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[45] The answers to these questions will drive the future direction the military takes in space. Fundamentally influencing these answers is the militarys organizationally held perceptions of the air and space environment itself. The militarys view of this environment not only shapes the role the military sees for itself in space, but affects how it develops space forces necessary to support that role.[46] CHAPTER III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[47] Space has provided us with huge capability because of its reach and ubiquity. The roles and applications of Space range widely from direct military roles of using it as a platform to launch weapons or support role of enhancing the capabilities of human beings in both military and civil field. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, the sensor like satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[48] Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are prepared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and diplomatic factors[49]. Supporting Role Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and navigation by global positioning system (GPS) satellites. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites had already been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[50]. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these and so many more things, reality. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. Operation Desert Storm is considered as the first space war, however the supporting role of space like providing near real time data from communicati on and meteorological satellites, was present during the war in Vietnam also. The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the â€Å"first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support.† [51] The support provided by the space based operations has enhanced the military capabilities drastically such that these operations have become inseparable part of every military operation. Some of these roles have been described as under: (a) Communication Satellites Communicating with deployed forces has always presented the military commanders with a problem. This is especially true in todays fast moving world when troops may have to be deployed anywhere in the world at a very short notice. The orbit used by communication satellite is the geostationary orbit. Three of Development of Space Power in India Development of Space Power in India SPACE POWER- A FORCE MULTIPLIER â€Å"The vastness of space is a key factor in the war-form of the future† Alvin Heidi Toffler[1] CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Space has always been a matter of great interest to human race, which gazed and tried to explore this cosmic world for thousands of years. Even our own epics talk a lot about space and its utilisation. The space warfare is as old as Indian mythology. However, Science flourished during the European Renaissance and fundamental physical laws governing planetary motion were discovered, and the orbits of the planets around the Sun were calculated. The Chinese were the first to develop a rocket in around 1212 AD. In 1883, a Russian schoolmaster, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, first explained the mechanics of how a rocket could fly into space.[2]. In the 17th century, astronomers pointed a new device called the telescope at the heavens and made startling discoveries[3]. On 03 Oct 1942, German scientists launched an A-4 rocket, which travelled a distance of 190 km and reached an altitude of over 80 km. Orbital operations started with Soviet Sputnik-1 satellite in 1957[4]. Since then exploration and exploitation of the space has been a continued effort. This led to the unfolding of mysteries of the space world and thus using it for own advantages. Military use of space started with the launch of an American reconnaissance satellite in 1960.[5] Since then, the utilisation of space has been a matter of debate and controversies as far as direct war fighting military roles and missions are concerned. However, the support operations like Intelligence, communication and reconnaissance, which came first, did not face much of resistance. The benefits possible from the space-based support operations were realised very quickly and these operations were extended further to surveillance, mapping, navigation, ground mapping, environmental monitoring etc. Space systems have brought better intelligence and stronger defences by enabling the collection of new types of data and information; significantly increasing communications capabilities and capacities; revolutionizing precision navigation and timing; enriching science; establishing new markets; providing safer air, land, and sea transportation; and enabling faster disaster relief as well as more effective civil planning[6]. The phenomenal utilization and exploitation of the space medium has finally provided the users the power to gain advantage over the enemy. Traditionally, power has been related to explosive ordinance and target destruction. But in the post-Cold War world, the power most often delivered by airmen has taken the form of humanitarian aid: food, medical supplies, and heavy equipment.[7] Also Knowledge is the purest form of power and is the reason that overhead surveillance, reconnaissance, and intelligence-gathering efforts are so important in both war and peace. Information delivered from above can be used to strengthen a friendly regime, discredit an enemy regime, or directly attack the morale of an adversarys frontline troops. They can detect missile launches, nuclear tests and they can provide secure real time communications all over the world. The resolution available with satellite reconnaissance is more than adequate for military needs. The accuracy of GPS is known to us all. In le ss hostile circumstances, the information might consist of humanitarian warnings about impending natural disasters or news about disaster-relief efforts[8]. The meteorological satellites provide accurate weather data from any part of the world. Thus in past few years, space-based systems have enabled dramatic improvement in military and intelligence operations thus enhancing its capability, accuracy and fire power. Thus the Space medium emerging as Space Power and the most effective and widely used force multiplier. METHODOLOGY Statement Of Problem To study and analyse the feasibility of Space Power to evolve as a frontline force multiplier for India and to critically examine the road ahead. Justification Of Study Indias achievement in the field of space capability may not seem to be very advanced especially when compared with the accomplishments of the superpowers and elite members of the satellite club. However, one needs to look at the Indian space programme in isolation to fully understand the tremendous progress and achievements that have been made from such a humble beginning. All the countries have developed launch vehicles as an offshoot of their ballistic missile projects, and their satellites were primarily intended for military use. Non- military applications were a spinoff of the military programmes, whereas India has developed space applications and launch vehicles for totally civilian use. The technology was also used within a broader framework to achieve socio-economic development, and military spin-offs have been incidental. Therefore, India has an inherent advantage as far as civilian support role is concerned however it needs special effort and attitude to develop military support application. Utilization of Space medium and Control of space based assets will be an important ingredient of future world power. President APJ Kalam has stated that accomplishments in space have traditionally been a barometer of international status, technological prowess and enhanced military capability. Rapid advancements in Information Technology, Internet and Com munications are increasingly utilising space based assets. These assets play a decisive role in shaping the outcome of conflicts and are engines that drive economic growths. India and China are likely to be the economic powerhouses of the 21st Century. India is also emerging as a key balancer of Asian stability. By its combined military and space technology, India would be required to contain regional conflicts and prevent unscrupulous exploitation of the Indian Ocean region[9]. Therefore development of space power both for military and civilian use, especially as a force multiplier is must to climb up the pyramid of world power. Perceptions determine actions. The militarys perception of the air and space environment influences the type of space forces it will develop in the future[10]. In Indias context which has belligerent neighbours, space based capabilities are the definite force multiplier. In fact, military strategist call space the new ‘High Ground. Which will bring in revolutionary changes in military affairs. Therefore we need to decide the kind of space force which we need to develop to exploit Space medium to the maximum as a force multiplier to maintain edge in the region. Scope This study analyses the exploitation of Space Force as a force multiplier in the Indian Context. Methods Of Data Collection The information and data for this dissertation has been gathered through internet, various books, papers, journals and newspapers. In addition, lectures delivered by dignitaries at DSSC have been utilised to gather information. The bibliography of sources is appended at the end of the dissertation. Organisation Of The Dissertation It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I Introduction and Methodology. (b) Chapter II Understanding Space power. (c) Chapter III Roles and Application of Space Power. (d) Chapter IV Space Power as Force Multiplier. (e) Chapter V Indian Capability and the Road Ahead. (f) Chapter VI Recommendations and Conclusion. CHAPTER II UNDERSTANDING SPACE POWER The beginning of wisdom is calling things by their right names. —Confucius Space has fascinated many thinkers, philosophers and Air Warriors equally for a long time. Many a researches and money has gone in exploring and exploiting space but still the concepts are not very clear to many of us. It is extremely important for us to have clear understanding of space before we can evaluate the role and utilization of space medium. Definitions Space Space is void of substance, offers no protection from harmful radiation, and allows only the balance between thrust and gravity with which to maneuver.[11] Space begins where satellites can maintain orbit (81 miles) and extends to infinity.[12] Power is control or authority to influence; the ability to produce an act or event.[13] And Space power is a nations ability to exploit and control the space medium to support and achieve national goals.[14] Gravity The driving force behind all orbital dynamics is the force of gravity and is defined by the law of universal Gravitation given by Isaac Newton in 1687. It states â€Å" Every particle in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the particle†.[15] Escape Velocity Satellites maintain orbit around a planet (Earth in our case) at a particular speed at a given height. If the speed is increased, the satellite goes into a higher orbit. Escape velocity is the speed at which the centrifugal force becomes greater than the pull of planetary gravity. The object would then cease to be an Earth-satellite, and start moving away from the earth. At 500 km the escape velocity is 10.8 km/sec.[16] Satellite Inclination Every satellite orbits within a plane that passes through Earths gravitational centre. The angle formed between the orbital plane of the satellite and the plane of the Earths equator. BY convention, it is measured anticlockwise from the equator to the orbital plane at the point where the satellite crosses, passing to north[17]. Orbits with inclination at or closer to 90 degrees are known as ‘polar orbits. ‘Equatorial orbits are those in or very close to the plane of the equator. The rest, between these two limits, are ‘inclined orbits. The combination of the satellites own motion and that of the rotating planet beneath produces a ‘ground track joining the successive points on the planet which fall directly beneath the satellite. The surface area of the planet in line-of-sight or direct communication with any satellite is a function of its altitude and ground track. In the lowest feasible orbits, the area that can be ‘seen by satelli te sensors is no more than that of one of Earths larger cities. Orbital Decay With a perfectly spherical planet of even density, no air resistance, and no minute gravitational pulls from neighbouring bodies (such as Sun, the Moon, and the other planets), a satellite would stay in orbit forever. In the real world these factors upset the balance of forces which sustains the orbit, which causes it to ‘decay, so that the satellite eventually falls to the Earth. For practical purposes, satellites which go below 300 km encounter air resistance serious enough to require intermittent use of on-board boosters to maintain their orbits.[18] Low Earth Orbit (LEO). This orbit ranges from a height of 200 and 5000 km. Polar and highly inclined orbits are favoured for general reconnaissance missions since they give planet-wide coverage. The periods of such range between 90 minutes and a few hours. Sun Synchronous orbit It is the orbit where in the satellite is used for surveillance at optical wave length and whose orbital motion will bring it periodically over the same area of interest at the same sunlight conditions from day to day. These orbital planes are called as Sun Synchronous orbit[19]. These are low earth orbits inclined at about 98 °. Semi-synchronous Orbit. This is circular orbit at 20,700 km with a period of 12 hours. The term is sometimes extended to all orbits between LEO and this orbit. Molniya Orbit. This is a highly elliptical orbit, at an altitude of between 500 40000 km, with a 12 hour period. This orbit is most stable at an inclination of 63 degrees. (At other inclinations gravitational anomalies resulting from irregularities in the shape and density of the planet cause the major axis of such an orbit the line joining the apogee and the perigee points to rotate inconveniently.) This orbit was used by the Soviet Union to provide satellite spending 11 hours out of 12 hours above the northern hemisphere.[20] Geostationary Satellite As the orbital height increases, so orbital period increases. If the orbital height increases to 35875km, the orbital period will be synchronised with the rotation rate of the Earth. Such a satellite would be called a geosynchronous satellite. If these satellite have zero degree of inclination such that these satellites will appear stationary in the sky over a point on the equator to an observer on earth. Such a satellite would be called a geostationary satellite[21]. This is a circular, equatorial orbit at an altitude of 35,700 km. With a period of 24 hours, such satellites appear to remain almost stationary above a fixed point over the equator. In practice, they sometimes describe a very small ‘ of eight ground tracks about such a point. Three or more evenly spaced geostationary satellites can cover most of the planet, except the Polar Regions. These satellites are mainly used for communications or early warning of missiles. Geosynchronous Orbit has li ttle military or other uses because of its large ‘ of eight ground tracks, depending on its inclination. In military discussions the term ‘geostationary, is tending to be replaced by ‘geosynchronous, because the former is the limiting case of the latter. Even a small inclination causes a geostationary satellite to become a ‘strictly speaking geosynchronous one. Military geostationary satellites may sometimes have a use for such a ground track, though seldom for the much wider, true geosynchronous orbit.[22] Super-synchronous Orbit. The orbits above GEO have had little use so far, but offer many options for future military satellites taking refuge from ground based or LEO anti-satellites. Certain points of equilibrium between solar, lunar and terrestrial gravitation are especially interesting.[23] (a) Near-Earth Orbit (NEO) or aerospace extends 50 to 200 kilometers above the Earths surface, incorporating the mesosphere and the lower edge of the ionosphere in an intermediate region where aerodynamics and ballistics interact or succeed each other. In the short term, NEO will remain the primary location for the deployment of manned and unmanned military systems and probable major space industrialization facilities such as a manned space operations center (SOC)[24]. It is through this zone that ballistic missiles must proceed during and after their boost phase and are most vulnerable to antiballistic missile (ABM) systems. However, minimum long-range effects from nuclear explosions are found at altitudes between 50 and 150 kilometers: above 50 kilometers, the mechanical effects of shockwave pressures almost disappear as a consequence of the relatively low air density; below 150 kilometers, the air density is still high enough to reduce the range of corpuscular radiation through di spersion and absorption so that the long-range thermal effect is also not maximum.[25] Therefore, even very powerful nuclear devises in the megaton range must be detonated at relatively close proximity to their intended target at NEO to be effective, although electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects could seriously disrupt unhardened electronic systems at long-range distances. Nevertheless, targets at NEO, compared to those at higher gravity well zones, are relatively vulnerable to Earth-based intervention because of an inherently short warning time available for the implementation of countermeasures and the minimal amount of energy that the enemy must expend to reach this zone. Conversely, a weapon system such as a fractional orbital bombardment system (FOBS) at NEO could attack targets on Earth with a minimum of warning[26]. (b) (c) The cislunar zone consists of all space between NEO and Lunar Surface Orbit (LSO), including Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO). The cislunar zone provides military systems situated here the defensive option of a longer reaction time to implement countermeasures against Earth- or NEO-based intervention[27]. (d) (e) LSO consists of the zone of space where the Moon orbits the Earth, including Near Lunar Orbit (NLO) or the space immediately surrounding the Moon. (f) (g) The translunar zone is comprised of the space from LSO to approximately one million kilometers from the Earths surface, where the solar gravity well begins to predominate and includes the five Lagrangian points. These final zones will attain increasing military significance as the process of space industrialization evolves. Eventually the Moon and Lagrangian points could be used to dominate the entire Earth-Moon system.[28] Outer Space In the denomination of legal material dealing with the space exploration and nearly the entire space law, the term outer space is commonly used. But this term has not been defined to date with precision despite many attempts undertaken by jurists, International non-governmental and the United Nations bodies[29]. The difference between space and the outer space is generally not recognised. But the former term is wider than the latter and means the whole universe including the earth while outer space means all spaces other than the earth. In fact, outer space begins where the earths atmosphere ends and extends on in all directions infinitely. The upper limit of the air space constitutes the lowest limit of outer space. The outer space in a broader sense also consists of the entire space beyond celestial bodies and their atmosphere. Celestial bodies include all land masses in space and their atmosphere except Earth. Therefore, air space is excluded from outer space. The diff erence between space and outer space is insignificant in so far as the exploration and use of such domain is concerned[30]. (h) The tactical space environment The tactical space environment of the Earth-Moon system can be conceptualized as a series of gravity well zones that are somewhat analogous to terrestrial hills, promontories, and mountains in that much effort and energy must be initially expended to situate forces in such locations. Once attained, however, these positions can be used to dominate the terrain below with relative ease. 1 illustrates in two-dimensional form the gravity well zones of the Earth-Moon system, which are in reality three dimensional spheres[31]. (i) (j) During the next two decades, military space activities and the development of various commercial space enterprises (or space industrialization) will be primarily restricted to this system. Possible military missions in this tactical environment include direct intervention on the Earths surface form space, regulation of the flow of space traffic, protection of military and industrial space facilities, denial of strategic areas of space to others (such as choice satellite orbits at Geosynchronous Earth Orbit and the various Lagrangian points at which objects revolve with the same period as the gravitational Earth-Moon system and thus remain effectively stationary), and various surveillance, reconnaissance, navigation, command, control, and communication functions[32]. CLICHÉ ABOUT SPACE POWER The space power being the latest addition to the force of a Nation, there is still a huge dilemma about its placement, its use whether military or civilian and also its control. Currently, a fully developed space power theory does not exist. USSPACECOM, recognizing the void, has commissioned Dr. Brian R. Sullivan as lead author to develop this theory.[33] Therefore there is requirement to develop a fully fledged theory and doctrine to guide the developed of space power straight from its infancy. Space is the next great arena for exploration and exploitation. We are limited only by imagination to the wonders, challenges and excitement the next century will bring as far as space forces are concerned. Already, civil and commercial sectors have invested billions of dollars in space and the nations military recognizes its role to protect these interests. The debate within the military on how to best exploit this new medium continues. But there is a need to go over few of the basic issues about Space Power to understand it clearly. The militarys current view of the air and space environment seems to simultaneously focus on opposing relationships between the two mediums. Air and space represent two distinct realms and at the same time, they are difficult to separate because of their similarities. These two relationships exist simultaneously and come together to form the following organizational paradigm of the air and space environment: Space and the atmosphere represent two distin ct medium environments physically different from each other; while at the same time, they are physically linked, and theoretically and historically tied.[34] There are few of these set of fundamental issues which require to be vetted if we are to understand space power with the kind of clarity with which we now understand air power and if we are to understand their nexus[35]. First of the issue, is regarding direct use of space as a Space power or weaponising of space to use it as a force itself. We must determine whether space power apply great power quickly to any tangible target on the planet? Many people would answer no to this question because of political restraints on weaponising space. Others would argue for an affirmative answer based on technical, if not political, feasibility. In either case, the question concerning the applicability of the essence remains assumed but undemonstrated. Or perhaps there exists a space power version of the essence that differs from all other military operations, including air power[36]. Also there are concerns regarding the future of space power and the kinds of military operations that are likely to migrate to space. Space may become another battle space, or it may become only a home to military operations focussed on non-lethal activities in support of combat elsewhere. So the major concern is whether space will be used as direct source of force or will continued to be used as a force multiplier only. Why does the military need a space force? The answers to this question shape military space force development by providing a sense of long-term direction, describing how such a force would serve national interests, and prescribing a force structure to fulfill that need. They are foundational answers that ultimately form the basis for space power theory and enable the military to articulate and justify reasons for a military space force. As the military more clearly articulates why space forces are needed, the better it is able to identify specific requirements necessary to achieve those forces. Thus, this question and the next are closely tied together[37]. What should the military do in space? The answers to this question bring the focus from broad to specific. They help formulate the functions and missions of a military space force, and provide the framework for establishing detailed force requirements. To summarize, the answers to the question of who establish the advocates for a military space force development. The answers to the questions of why and what together develop and identify long term direction, and offer short-term input to the resource allocation process.[38] The next issue is to do with the control of space power. This will mainly emerge from our innovation, imagination and farsightedness. Air Power being the strongest contender of claiming the control of space, there is need to deeply study the relationship between Space power and Air Power. This relationship can be well understood only by defining and studying the relationship between space and Air. Who should lead and develop military space forces? This question addresses the need to focus on finding the best organization, or mix of organizations, to advocate a military space force. Military space advocates must be able to justify—on military grounds alone—the necessity of military forces in space. These organizations are the stewards that provide both administrative control over the forces that support military space power, and the war-fighting control of these forces during employment of that power. A space force advocate embraces and promotes the ideals for a military space force, and garners the support necessary to establish such a force[39]. Air and Space relationship The defining characteristic of air power is an operational regime ele ­vated above the earths surface. Conceptually, space power would seem to be more of the same at a higher elevation. The term aerospace, coined in the late 1950s, echoes this same theme, as do official pronouncements such as although there are physical differences between the atmosphere and space, there is no absolute boundary between them. The same basic military activities can be performed in each, albeit with different platforms and methods.[40] The move from earth to space transitsis through the air environment, thereby inherently bringing about a linkage as no space launch or recovery can take place without transiting through the air medium. Any differentiation between the two would be superficial and indefinable. In future, the air and space mediums would provide a seamless environment where Trans Atmospheric Vehicles (TAVs) and re-usable hypersonic vehicles could exploit it freely. In addition, with increas ed proliferation of Ballistic Missiles and development of potent nuclear warheads, there is a need to extend the current Air Defence capabilities to space to ensure that the threats emanating from the air and space environment can be effectively tackled.[41] While the physical borders between the land, sea and air are readily evident, the physical border between air and space is not as clear. The atmosphere gradually disappears and space gradually starts. Furthermore, from a physical point of view, earths entire connection to space is through the atmosphere. Every movement into space begins with movement through air. Thus, from a physical point of view, space is linked with air.[42] Conceptually thinking, we cannot easily ignore the vast differences between operations in the atmosphere and in space? Current military thought suggests that space is a medium separate and distinct from the atmosphere with physical characteristics unique enough that a barrier forms between the two. The atmosphere is a realm of substance offering the advantages of protection from radiation, thermal transfer of heat and the ability to produce and control lift and drag. These aspects of the air medium make it considerably different than the realm of space.[43] Space assets are differentiated from air platforms by being non-air breathing. Military force includes all of the civilian elements such as contractor support that are required to sustain air or space operations.[44] It is difficult to analyse these and many more issues dealing with space without a general, overarching theory of space power. The task is made even more difficult by several other factors, such as the limited experience base in military space operations, the tight security classification concerning much of what goes on in space, and the thoroughly sub-divided responsibility for space operations. Thus, we have a conundrum-a jig-saw puzzle that will someday picture how space power fits or doesnt fit with air power. Solving the puzzle represents a major leadership challenge.[45] The answers to these questions will drive the future direction the military takes in space. Fundamentally influencing these answers is the militarys organizationally held perceptions of the air and space environment itself. The militarys view of this environment not only shapes the role the military sees for itself in space, but affects how it develops space forces necessary to support that role.[46] CHAPTER III Air and space power is a critical—and decisive—element in protecting our nation and deterring aggression. It will only remain so if we as professional airmen study, evaluate, and debate our capabilities and the environment of the future. Just as technology and world threat and opportunities change, so must our doctrine. We, each of us, must be the articulate and knowledgeable advocates of air and space power. —General Michael E. Ryan ROLES AND APPLICATIONS OF SPACE POWER Victory smiles upon those who anticipate the changes in the character of war not upon those who wait to adapt themselves after the changes occur. Guilio Douhet Man has a compelling urge to explore, to discover and to try to go where no one has ever been before. As most of the Earth has already been explored and even though it is going to be there for a very long time, men have now turned to space exploration as their next objective.[47] Space has provided us with huge capability because of its reach and ubiquity. The roles and applications of Space range widely from direct military roles of using it as a platform to launch weapons or support role of enhancing the capabilities of human beings in both military and civil field. Thus as we race into the next decade, a new frontier seems to be opening up in space with vast potential for military, science and exploration activities. So far as the armed forces are concerned, the sensor like satellites would provide them with unheard-of capabilities in a large number of fields.[48] Space power is becoming an in ­creasingly important aspect of na ­tional strength, but experts disagree about how best to develop its poten ­tial. Like airpower, space power relies heavily upon advanced technology, but technology is useless unless space professionals apply it properly. Air Force leaders recognize that the service needs to nurture a team of highly dedicated space professionals who are prepared to exploit advanced technologies and operating concepts. Concern about the fu ­ture direction of military activities in space has spurred debate over which technologies to produce and how best to develop space professionals. Moral, theoretical, and doc ­trinal questions also loom large. Underlying all of these considerations are political and diplomatic factors[49]. Supporting Role Today, space power pro ­vides supporting functions such as commu ­nications, reconnaissance, and navigation by global positioning system (GPS) satellites. By the end of 1999, at least 2300 military oriented satellites had already been launched. The functions of military satellites, which constitute about 75% of all satellites orbited, ranged from navigation, communications, meteorological and reconnaissance[50]. New technologies move large amounts of data around the world at the speed of light. Al-though a century ago people would have con ­sidered such feats science fiction, modern space capabilities make these and so many more things, reality. Space power has transformed our society and our military. Today, at the outset of the twenty-first century, we simply cannot live—or fight and win—without it. Operation Desert Storm is considered as the first space war, however the supporting role of space like providing near real time data from communicati on and meteorological satellites, was present during the war in Vietnam also. The Gulf War of 1991, however, was the â€Å"first conflict in history to make comprehensive use of space systems support.† [51] The support provided by the space based operations has enhanced the military capabilities drastically such that these operations have become inseparable part of every military operation. Some of these roles have been described as under: (a) Communication Satellites Communicating with deployed forces has always presented the military commanders with a problem. This is especially true in todays fast moving world when troops may have to be deployed anywhere in the world at a very short notice. The orbit used by communication satellite is the geostationary orbit. Three of